What Does It Mean to Say the Aztec Empire Was Based on Tribute

Imperial alliance of city states located in fundamental Mexico during the 15th and 16th centuries

This article is nearly the Aztec Empire as a political entity. For Aztec civilization, see Aztecs. For Aztec society, come across Aztec society.

Triple Brotherhood (Aztec Empire) Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān
1428–1521
Aztec glyphs of the member-states of the Aztec Triple Brotherhood (from left to right: Tetzcoco, Tenōchtitlan, and Tlacopan)
Maximum extent of the Aztec Empire
Capital letter	Mexico-Tenochtitlan (de facto)
Mutual languages	Nahuatl (lingua franca) Also Otomí, Matlatzinca, Mazahua, Mazatec, Huaxtec, Tepehua, Popoloca, Popoluca, Tlapanec, Mixtec, Cuicatec, Trique, Zapotec, Zoque, Chochotec, Chinantec, Totonac, Cuitlatec, Pame, Mam, Tapachultec, Tarascan, amid others
Religion	Aztec polytheism
Authorities	Hegemonic military confederation of allied city-states
Huehuetlatoani of Tenochtitlan
• 1427–1440	Itzcoatl (Brotherhood founder)
• 1520–1521	Cuauhtémoc (last)
Huetlatoani of Texcoco
• 1431–1440	Nezahualcoyotl (Alliance founder)
• 1516–1520	Cacamatzin (concluding)
Huetlatoani of Tlacopan
• 1400–1430	Totoquihuatzin (Alliance founder)
• 1519–1524	Tetlepanquetzaltzin (last)
Historical era	Pre-Columbian era Age of Discovery
• Foundation of the alliance[one]	1428
• Spanish conquest	Baronial 13, 1521
Surface area
1520[ii]	220,000 km2 (85,000 sq mi)
Population
• early 16th century[iii]	5–half dozen meg
Currency	Quachtli (pay with cotton cloth by quantity) and cocoa bean as commodity coin
Preceded by Succeeded by Tenochtitlan Tlatelolco Tlacopan Azcapotzalco Colhuacan Tetzcoco Chalco Xochimilco Xoconochco Coixtlahuaca New Kingdom of spain (Spanish Empire)
Today function of	Mexico
Full list of monarchs virtually bottom of page.[4]

The Aztec Empire or the Triple Alliance (Classical Nahuatl: Ēxcān Tlahtōlōyān , [ˈjéːʃkaːn̥ t͡ɬaʔtoːˈlóːjaːn̥]) was an alliance of 3 Nahua altepetl city-states: Mexico-Tenochtitlan , Tetzcoco , and Tlacopan . These three city-states ruled that area in and around the Valley of Mexico from 1428 until the combined forces of the Spanish conquistadores and their native allies who ruled under Hernán Cortés defeated them in 1521.

The alliance was formed from the victorious factions of a ceremonious state of war fought betwixt the metropolis of Azcapotzalco and its former tributary provinces.^[4] Despite the initial conception of the empire equally an brotherhood of three self-governed city-states, the capital Tenochtitlan became dominant militarily.^[v] By the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, the lands of the alliance were finer ruled from Tenochtitlan , while other partners of the brotherhood had taken subsidiary roles.

The alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded after its formation. The alliance controlled most of central Mexico at its top, besides as some more distant territories within Mesoamerica, such as the Xoconochco province, an Aztec exclave near the nowadays-day Guatemalan border. Aztec rule has been described past scholars as "hegemonic" or "indirect".^[half-dozen] The Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the alliance, likewise as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts. In render, the regal authorization offered protection and political stability and facilitated an integrated economical network of diverse lands and peoples who had significant local autonomy.

The land organized religion of the empire was polytheistic, worshiping a diverse pantheon that included dozens of deities. Many had officially recognized cults big enough so that the deity was represented in the key temple precinct of the uppercase Tenochtitlan . The royal cult was specifically that of the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica Huitzilopochtli . Peoples were allowed to retain and freely continue their own religious traditions in conquered provinces so long equally they added the imperial god Huitzilopochtli to their local pantheons.

Etymology and definitions

The word "Aztec" in modernistic usage would not have been used by the people themselves. Information technology has variously been used to refer to the Aztecs or Triple Alliance, the Nahuatl-speaking people of primal Mexico prior to the Castilian conquest, or specifically the Mexica ethnicity of the Nahuatl-speaking tribes (from tlaca).^[7] The name comes from the atypical Nahuatl word aztecatl (Nahuatl pronunciation: [asˈtekat͡ɬ]) that ways "[people] from Aztlan", reflecting the mythical place of origin for Nahua peoples.^{[8] [nine]}

History

Commencement page of the Codex Boturini, showing the migration of the Mexica.

Before the Aztec Empire

Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples, who migrated to central Mexico from the north (mainly centered sparsely around present-day states of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Guanajuato) in the early on 13th century.^[10] The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history, equally they sought political legitimacy.^[11] Pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history say that the empire'due south place of origin was called Aztlán. Early migrants settled the Bowl of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of independent urban center-states. These early Nahua urban center-states or altepetl were ruled by dynastic heads called tlahtohqueh (singularly tlatoāni). Nigh of the existing settlements had been established by other indigenous peoples before the Mexica migration.^[12]

These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with each other but no private city gained dominance due to shifting alliances.^[13] The Mexica were the terminal of the Nahua migrants to arrive in Central Mexico. They entered the Basin of Mexico around the year 1250, and, by and then, well-nigh of the proficient agricultural land had already been claimed.^[14] The Mexica persuaded the rex of Culhuacan, a small city-state just of import historically as a refuge of the Toltecs to make them settle in a relatively infertile patch of country called Chapultepec (Chapoltepēc, "in the hill of grasshoppers"). The Mexica served every bit mercenaries for Culhuacan.^[xv]

Subsequently the Mexica served Culhuacan in battle, the ruler appointed one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. Mythological native accounts say that the Mexica instead sacrificed her by flaying her pare on the command of their god Xipe Totec.^[16] The ruler of Culhuacan attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from Tizaapan by force when he learned of this. The Mexica moved to an island in the center of Lake Texcoco where an eagle nested on a nopal cactus. The Mexica interpreted this as a sign from their gods and founded their new city Tenochtitlan on this isle in the year ōme calli (or "2 Firm", 1325 AD).^[4]

Aztec warfare

The Mexica rose to prominence equally fierce warriors and were able to found themselves as a military machine ability. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military machine power, prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519.

The new Mexica urban center-state allied with the metropolis of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its ruler Tezozomoc.^[17] Azcapotzalco began to expand into a modest tributary empire with Mexica assistance. The Mexica ruler was non recognized as a legitimate king until this indicate. Mexica leaders successfully petitioned one of the kings of Culhuacan to provide a daughter to marry into the Mexica line. Their son Acamapichtli was enthroned as the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan in 1372.^[18]

The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco expanded their rule with help from the Mexica, while the Acolhua urban center of Texcoco grew in power in the eastern portion of the lake basin. Eventually, war erupted between the two states, and the Mexica played a vital part in the conquest of Texcoco. By then, Tenochtitlan had grown into a major city and was rewarded for its loyalty to the Tepanecs past receiving Texcoco equally a tributary province.^[19]

Mexica warfare was marked by a focus on capturing enemies rather than killing them from its tactics to artillery. Capturing enemies was important for religious ritual and provided a means by which soldiers could distinguish themselves during campaigns.^[20]

Tepanec War

In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died,^{[21] [22] [23]} and the resulting succession crisis precipitated a ceremonious war betwixt potential successors.^[nineteen] The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir Tayahauh, who was initially enthroned equally king. Just his son Maxtla soon usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including the Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated past Maxtla.^[14]

The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla, and he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute payments.^[24] Maxtla similarly turned against the Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco Nezahualcoyotl fled into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited armed forces help from the rex of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the support of a dissident Tepanec city called Tlacopan. In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428.^[24]

Subsequently the war, Huexotzinco withdrew, and, in 1430,^[1] the three remaining cities formed a treaty at present known every bit the Triple Alliance.^[24] The Tepanec lands were carved up amongst the three cities, whose leaders agreed to cooperate in future wars of conquest. Land acquired from these conquests was to be held by the three cities together. A tribute was divided and then that ii kings of the alliance would go to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco and one would become to Tlacopan. The three kings assumed the title "huetlatoani" ("Elder Speaker", ofttimes translated as "Emperor") in turn. Each temporarily held a de jure position higher up the rulers of other urban center-states ("tlatoani") in this part.^[25]

In the following 100 years, the Triple Brotherhood of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan dominated the Valley of Mexico and extended its power to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant ability in the alliance. 2 of the primary architects of this alliance were the half-brothers and nephews of Itzcoatl Tlacaelel and Moctezuma. Moctezuma eventually succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica huetlatoani in 1440. Tlacaelel occupied the newly created "Cihuacoatl" title, equivalent to something betwixt "Prime Minister" and "Viceroy".^{[24] [26]}

Imperial reforms

Before long subsequently the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec state and organized religion. It has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they independent lies and that information technology was "not wise that all the people should know the paintings".^[27] If he ordered book-burnings, information technology would have been primarily limited to documents containing political propaganda from previous regimes. He rewrote the history of the Aztecs thereafter, naturally placing the Mexica in a more than central function.^{[ citation needed ]}

After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica emperor, more than reforms were instigated to maintain control over conquered cities.^[28] Uncooperative kings were replaced with boob rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new royal tribute system established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed the population direct, bypassing the authority of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary holdings in lands far from their capitals.^[29] This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city'southward king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced by calpixqueh or appointed governors rather than dynastic rulers.^[29]

Moctezuma issued new laws that separated nobles from commoners and instituted the capital punishment for adultery and other offenses.^[30] A religiously supervised schoolhouse was built in every neighborhood past purple decree.^[30] Commoner neighborhoods had a schoolhouse called a "telpochcalli" where they received bones religious instruction and military training.^[31] A 2nd, more prestigious type of schoolhouse chosen a "calmecac" served to teach the nobility, as well equally commoners of high continuing seeking to become priests or artisans. Moctezuma as well created a new title chosen "quauhpilli" that could be conferred on commoners.^[28] This title was a grade of not-hereditary bottom nobility awarded for outstanding military machine or civil service (similar to the English knight). Commoners who received this title rarely married into royal families and became kings.^[29]

One component of this reform was the cosmos of an institution of regulated warfare called the Flower Wars. Mesoamerican warfare overall is characterized by a strong preference for capturing alive prisoners as opposed to slaughtering the enemy on the battlefield, which was considered sloppy and gratuitous. The Blossom Wars are a potent manifestation of this approach to warfare. These highly ritualized wars ensured a steady, healthy supply of experienced Aztec warriors every bit well as a steady, salubrious supply of captured enemy warriors for sacrifice to the gods. Flower wars were pre-arranged by officials on both sides and conducted specifically for the purpose of each polity collecting prisoners for sacrifice.^{[twenty] [32]} Native historical accounts say that these wars were instigated past Tlacaelel as a ways of appeasing the gods in response to a massive drought that gripped the Basin of Mexico from 1450 to 1454.^[33] The bloom wars were mostly waged betwixt the Aztec Empire and the neighboring cities of their arch-enemy Tlaxcala.

Early years of expansion

Map of the expansion of the empire, showing the areas that have been conquered by the Aztec rulers.^[34]

After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl consolidated power in the Bowl of Mexico and began to expand across its borders. The start targets for regal expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of United mexican states and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modernistic Mexican country of Morelos.^[35] These conquests provided the new empire with a big influx of tribute, particularly agricultural goods.

Itzcoatl died, and Moctezuma I was enthroned equally the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was briefly halted by a major 4-year drought that hit the Basin of United mexican states in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided.^[36] Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand the empire east towards the Gulf of United mexican states and southward into Oaxaca. In 1468, Moctezuma I died and was succeeded past his son Axayacatl. Most of Axayacatl's thirteen-year reign was spent consolidating the territory acquired under his predecessor. Motecuzoma and Nezahualcoyotl had expanded rapidly and many provinces rebelled.^[14]

Too, as the Aztec Empire was expanding and consolidating power, the Purépecha Empire in Due west Mexico was similarly expanding. In 1455, the Purépecha under their male monarch Tzitzipandaquare had invaded the Toluca Valley, claiming lands previously conquered by Motecuzoma and Itzcoatl.^[37] In 1472, Axayacatl re-conquered the region and successfully dedicated it from Purépecha's attempts to accept information technology dorsum. In 1479, Axayacatl launched a major invasion of the Purépecha Empire with 32,000 Aztec soldiers.^[37] Purépecha met them just across the border with 50,000 soldiers and scored a resounding victory, killing or capturing over 90% of the Aztec army. Axayacatl himself was wounded in the boxing, retreated to Tenochtitlan, and never engaged the Purépecha in battle once more.^[38]

In 1472, Nezahualcoyotl died, and his son Nezahualpilli was enthroned equally the new huetlatoani of Texcoco.^[39] This was followed by the decease of Axayacatl in 1481.^[38] Axayacatl was replaced by his brother Tizoc. Tizoc's reign was notoriously brief. He proved to be ineffectual and did not significantly expand the empire. Tizoc was likely assassinated past his ain nobles 5 years into his rule, plain due to his incompetence.^[38]

Later years of expansion

The maximal extent of the Aztec Empire, according to María del Carmen Solanes Carraro and Enrique Vela Ramírez.

Tizoc was succeeded past his blood brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the commencement part of Ahuitzotl'southward reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule.^[38] Ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Declension. Ahuitzotl conquered the border metropolis of Otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost due to increased border skirmishes with the Purépecha.^[40] The population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process.^[37] The Purépecha subsequently established fortresses nearby to protect against Aztec expansion.^[37] Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further due west to the Pacific Coast of Guerrero.

By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Brotherhood.^[41] Building on the prestige the Mexica had acquired over the form of the conquests, Ahuitzotl began to apply the championship "huehuetlatoani" ("Eldest Speaker") to distinguish himself from the rulers of Texcoco and Tlacopan.^[38] The alliance still technically ran the empire. But the Mexica Emperor now assumed nominal if non actual seniority.

Ahuitzotl was succeeded by his nephew Moctezuma 2 in 1502. Moctezuma Two spent virtually of his reign consolidating power in lands conquered by his predecessors.^[40] In 1515, Aztec armies commanded by the Tlaxcalan general Tlahuicole invaded the Purépecha Empire over again.^[42] The Aztec army failed to take any territory and was more often than not restricted to raiding. The Purépecha defeated them and the army withdrew.

Moctezuma Ii instituted more imperial reforms.^[40] The death of Nezahualcoyotl caused the Mexica Emperors to get the de facto rulers of the alliance. Moctezuma 2 used his reign to effort to consolidate power more than closely with the Mexica Emperor.^[43] He removed many of Ahuitzotl's advisors and had several of them executed.^[40] He also abolished the "quauhpilli" class, destroying the chance for commoners to advance to the dignity. His reform efforts were cut brusque by the Spanish Conquest in 1519.

Spanish conquest

The Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (nearly armed with only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed every bit the expedition's commander by the governor of Cuba Diego Velásquez but had stolen the boats and left without permission.^[44] At the island of Cozumel, Cortés encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between Castilian and Mayan. The expedition then sailed w to Campeche, where, after a brief boxing with the local ground forces, Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second translator, a bilingual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she was known too as Malinalli [maliˈnalːi], Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina]). Aguilar translated from Castilian to Mayan, and La Malinche translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Malinche became Cortés' translator for both language and culture one time she learned Spanish, and she was a cardinal figure in interactions with Nahua rulers. "Rethinking Malinche" by Frances Karttunen is a vital article, examining her part in the conquest and beyond.^[45]

Cortés then sailed from Campeche to Cempoala, a tributary province of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Nearby, he founded the town of Veracruz where he met with ambassadors from the reigning Mexica emperor Motecuzoma II. When the ambassadors returned to Tenochtitlan, Cortés went to Cempoala to meet with the local Totonac leaders. The Totonac ruler told Cortés of his various grievances against the Mexica, and Cortés convinced the Totonacs to imprison an imperial tribute collector.^[46] Cortés subsequently released the tribute collector afterwards persuading him that the move was entirely the Totonac's idea and that he had no knowledge of it. The Totonacs provided Cortés with 20 companies of soldiers for his march to Tlaxcala, having effectively declared state of war on the Aztecs.^[47] At this fourth dimension, several of Cortés' soldiers attempted to mutiny. When Cortés discovered the plot, he had his ships scuttled and sank them in the harbor to remove any possibility of escaping to Cuba.^[48]

The Aztec Empire in 1519.

The Castilian-led Totonac army crossed into Tlaxcala to seek the latter'southward brotherhood confronting the Aztecs. However, the Tlaxcalan general Xicotencatl the Younger believed them to be hostile and attacked. Later fighting several close battles, Cortés eventually convinced the leaders of Tlaxcala to order their general to stand downward. Cortés and so secured an brotherhood with the people of Tlaxcala and traveled from in that location to the Basin of United mexican states with a smaller company of 5,000-half dozen,000 Tlaxcalans and 400 Totonacs in improver to the Spanish soldiers.^[48] During his stay in the city of Cholula, Cortés claims he received discussion of a planned deadfall against the Castilian.^[48] In a pre-emptive response, Cortés directed his troops to attack and kill a large amount of unarmed Cholulans gathered in the main foursquare of the city.

Post-obit the massacre at Cholula, Cortés and the other Spaniards entered Tenochtitlan, where they were greeted every bit guests and given quarters in the palace of one-time emperor Axayacatl.^[49] After staying in the city for half dozen weeks, ii Spaniards from the group left behind in Veracruz were killed in an atmospherics with an Aztec lord named Quetzalpopoca. Cortés claims that he used this incident as an alibi to have Motecuzoma prisoner under threat of force.^[48] Motecuzoma continued to run the kingdom as a prisoner of Cortés for several months. A second, larger Castilian expedition then arrived in 1520 nether the command of Pánfilo de Narváez sent by Diego Velásquez with the goal of arresting Cortés for treason. Earlier confronting Narváez, Cortés secretly persuaded Narváez's lieutenants to betray him and bring together Cortés.^[48]

Cortés was abroad from Tenochtitlan dealing with Narváez, while his 2nd-in-command Pedro de Alvarado massacred a group of Aztec nobility, in response to a ritual of human cede honoring Huitzilopochtli.^[48] The Aztecs retaliated by attacking the palace where the Spanish were quartered. Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan and fought his way to the palace. He then took Motecuzoma up to the roof of the palace to ask his subjects to stand down. However, by this indicate, the ruling quango of Tenochtitlan had voted to depose Motecuzoma and had elected his brother Cuitlahuac as the new emperor.^[49] I of the Aztec soldiers struck Motecuzoma in the head with a sling stone, and he died several days subsequently, though the exact circumstances of his death are unclear.^[49]

The Spaniards and their allies attempted to retreat without detection in what is known every bit the "Sad Night" or La Noche Triste, realizing that they were vulnerable to the hostile Mexica in Tenochtitlan following Moctezuma's expiry. Spaniards and their Indian allies were discovered clandestinely retreating and were then forced to fight their mode out of the city with heavy loss of life. Some Spaniards lost their lives by drowning, loaded down with gold.^[50] They retreated to Tlacopan (now Tacuba) and made their fashion to Tlaxcala where they recovered and prepared for the 2d, successful assail on Tenochtitlan. After this incident, a smallpox outbreak hitting Tenochtitlan. The outbreak alone killed more than than fifty% of the region'south population, including the emperor Cuitláhuac, as the indigenous of the New World had no previous exposure to smallpox.^[51] The new emperor Cuauhtémoc dealt with the smallpox outbreak, while Cortés raised an army of Tlaxcalans, Texcocans, Totonacs, and others discontent with Aztec dominion. Cortés marched back to the Basin of Mexico with a combined army of up to 100,000 warriors.^[48] The overwhelming majority of warriors were ethnic rather than Spanish. Cortés captured diverse ethnic metropolis-states or altepetl around the lake shore and surrounding mountains through numerous subsequent battles and skirmishes, including the other capitals of the Triple Alliance, Tlacopan and Texcoco. Texcoco, in fact, had already get firm allies of the Spaniards and the city-state and later petitioned the Spanish crown for recognition of their services in the conquest like to Tlaxcala.^[52]

Cortés used boats constructed in Texcoco from parts salvaged from the scuttled ships to blockade and lay siege to Tenochtitlan for a period of several months.^[48] Somewhen, the Castilian-led army assaulted the city both past boat and using the elevated causeways connecting it to the mainland. The attackers took heavy casualties, although the Aztecs were ultimately defeated. The city of Tenochtitlan was thoroughly destroyed in the procedure. Cuauhtémoc was captured as he attempted to flee the city. Cortés kept him prisoner and tortured him for a menstruum of several years before finally executing him in 1525.^[53]

Government

The Aztec Empire was an case of an empire that ruled by indirect means. It was ethnically very diverse similar most European empires but was more than a system of tributes than a single unitary class of government different them. In the theoretical framework of royal systems posited past American historian Alexander J. Motyl, the Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not claim supreme authorisation over its tributary provinces. It merely expected to pay tributes.^[54] The empire was likewise territorially discontinuous, i.e. land did not connect all of its dominated territories. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the cardinal part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions in one case they conquered their metropolis-state, and the Aztecs did not interfere in local diplomacy every bit long every bit the tribute payments were made.^[55]

The form of government is ofttimes referred to as an empire, yet virtually areas within the empire were, in fact, organized equally city-states (individually known equally altepetl in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were small polities ruled by a king or tlatoani (literally "speaker", plurally tlatoque) from an aristocratic dynasty. The Early on Aztec menstruation was a time of growth and contest among altepeme. Afterward the Nahuas formed the empire in 1428 and the empire began its programme of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the ascendant form of organization at the local level. The efficient office of the altepetl every bit a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control.^[56]

The term "Aztec empire" is actually mod and not one used by the Aztecs themselves. The Aztec realm was at its core equanimous of 3 Nahuatl-speaking city-states in the densely populated Valley of Mexico. Asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states Tenochtitlan above the other two overtime. The "Triple Alliance" came to establish hegemony over much of key Mesoamerica, including areas of great linguistic and cultural diverseness. The Nahuas performed administration of the empire through largely traditional, indirect means. Something of a nascent bureaucracy, however, may have been beginning to course overtime insofar, as the country organization became increasingly centralized.

Central administration

Earlier the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation forth traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led past tlatoani (lit., "speakers"), who supervised village headmen, who in turn supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a Huey Tlatoani (lit., "bang-up speaker") at the head of several tlatoani. Post-obit Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl condign replaced with calpixque stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than merely replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the aforementioned set of local dignity.^[57]

Withal the Huey tlatoani was non the sole executive. Information technology was the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to bargain with the external issues of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all nether the purview of the Huey tlatoani. Information technology was the function of the Cihuacoatl to govern a given city itself. The Cihuacoatl was always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both the title "Cihuacoatl", which means "female person snake" (it is the name of a Nahua deity), and the role of the position, somewhat coordinating to a European Viceroy or Prime number Minister, reflect the dualistic nature of Nahua cosmology. Neither the position of Cihuacoatl nor the position of Huetlatoani were priestly, withal both did have important ritual tasks. Those of the one-time were associated with the "female" wet season, those of the latter with the "male person" dry season. While the position of Cihuacoatl is best attested in Tenochtitlan, it is known that the position as well existed the nearby altepetl of Azcapotzalco, Culhuacan, and Tenochtitlan'due south ally Texcoco. Despite the apparent lesser status of the position, a Cihuacoatl could prove both influential and powerful, as in the example of Tlacaelel.^{[58] [59]}

Early in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a iv-fellow member military and advisory Council which assisted the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tlacochcalcatl; the tlaccatecatl; the ezhuahuacatl;^[60] and the tlillancalqui. This design not only provided advise for the ruler, information technology also served to comprise appetite on the part of the nobility, as henceforth Huey Tlatoani could merely be selected from the council. Moreover, the actions of any one fellow member of the council could easily be blocked by the other iii, providing a simple organization of checks on the ambition higher officials. These 4 Council members were as well generals, members of various military societies. The ranks of the members were non equal, with the tlacochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than the others. These two Councillors were members of the two most prestigious military societies, the cuauhchique ("shorn ones") and the otontin ("Otomies").^{[61] [62]} The tetecuhtin, the relatives of the former Huey tlatoani, will cull the adjacent Huey tlatoani from the four council members.^[63]

Provincial assistants

Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by hereditary tlatoani. Every bit the empire grew, the system evolved farther and some tlatoani were replaced by other officials. The other officials had like authority to tlatoani. Equally has already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular calpixqui, plural calpixque) were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of the option of provincial dignity to the same position of tlatoani. At the tiptop of empire, the organisation of the land into tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of this system. The 38 tributary provinces roughshod nether the supervision of high stewards, or huecalpixque, whose say-so extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were substantially managers of the provincial tribute arrangement which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not by the huetlatoani, only rather by a separate position altogether: the petlacalcatl. On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive, the Nahuas placed a armed services governor, or cuauhtlatoani, at the head of provincial supervision.^[64] During his reign, Moctezuma I elaborated the calpixque system, with 2 calpixque assigned per tributary province. The province itself stationed i, perhaps for supervising the collection of tribute, and the other in Tenochtitlan, perhaps for supervising storage of tribute. Commoners drew the tribute, the macehualtin, and distributed to the nobility, be they 'kings' (tlatoque), lesser rulers (teteuctin), or provincial nobility (pipiltin).^[65]

The Nahuas supervised the tribute collection past the higher up officials and relied upon the coercive power of the Aztec armed forces, but likewise upon the cooperation of the pipiltin (the local dignity who were themselves exempt from and recipient to tribute) and the hereditary class of merchants known every bit pochteca. These pochteca had various gradations of ranks which granted them sure trading rights and and so were non necessarily pipiltin themselves, yet they played an of import role in both the growth and administration of the Aztec tributary organization nonetheless. The pochteca strongly tied their ability, political and economic, to the political and military ability of the Aztec nobility and state. In improver to serving as diplomats (teucnenenque, or "travelers of the lord") and spies in the prelude to conquest, college-ranking pochteca also served as judges in market plazas and were to sure degree democratic corporate groups, having administrative duties within their own estate.^{[66] [67]}

Ideology and state

The Nahuas placed Techcatl, the Aztec sacrifice altar, in the sacrifice paving, and the courtyard on the southward side of Huēyi Teōcalli.

Rulers, if they are local teteuctin or tlatoani, or central Huetlatoani, were seen as representatives of the gods and therefore ruled by divine right. Tlatocayotl, or the principle of rulership, established that descent inherited this divine right. Political order was, therefore, also a catholic gild, and to impale a tlatoani was to transgress that order. For this reason, whenever the Nahuas killed or otherwise removed a tlatoani from their station, their stead typically placed a relative and member of the same bloodline. The institution of the office of Huetlatoani understood through the cosmos of another level of rulership, hueitlatocayotl, standing in superior contrast to the bottom tlatocayotl principle.^[68]

A militaristic interpretation of Nahua religion, specifically a devout veneration of the sun god, Huitzilopochtli, guided expansion of the empire. Militaristic land rituals were performed throughout the year according to a ceremonial calendar of events, rites, and mock battles.^[69] The time period they lived in was understood every bit the Ollintonatiuh, or Sunday of Movement, which was believed to accept been the last age afterward which humanity would be destroyed. Information technology was under Tlacaelel that Huitzilopochtli assumed his elevated role in the land pantheon and who argued that information technology was through blood sacrifice that the Sun would be maintained and thereby stave off the terminate of the world. It was under this new, militaristic interpretation of Huitzilopochtli that Aztec soldiers were encouraged to fight wars and capture enemy soldiers for cede. Though claret sacrifice was common in Mesoamerica, the scale of human sacrifice nether the Aztecs was likely unprecedented in the region.^[70]

Schematic of bureaucracy

Executive & Military	Tribute System	Judicial Organisation	Provincial System
Huetlatoani, the paramount or external ruler Cihuacoatl, the bottom or internal ruler Council of Four, an informational body of generals and source of futurity Huetlatoani Tlacochcalcatl Tlacateccatl Ezhuahuacatl [60] Tlillancalqui Military societies Cuachicqueh, or Shorn Ones Cuāuhtli, or Eagle Knights Ocēlōmeh, or Jaguar Warriors Otōntin, or Otomies	Petlacalcatl, cardinal head of tribute Huecalpixque, provincial overseers of tribute Calpixque, pairs of tribute administrators	Supreme Courtroom Special Courts Appellate Courts Pochteca Courts Pochteca agents	Tlatoani, a subordinate ruler of a province, otherwise ruled past a: Cuauhtlatoani, a military governor Heads of Calpōlli wards Heads of households within calpōlli wards who served as corvée labor

Provincial structure

Aztec Empire territorial organization in 1519

Originally, the Aztec empire was a loose alliance between 3 cities: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the about junior partner, Tlacopan. Every bit such, they were known as the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very mutual in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were e'er fluctuating. All the same, over time, Tenochtitlan assumed paramount authority in the brotherhood, and although each partner city shared spoils of state of war and rights to regular tribute from the provinces and were governed by their own Huetlatoani, Tenochtitlan became the largest, most powerful, and most influential of the three cities. It was the de facto and acknowledged center of empire.^[71]

Though the Aztecs did not describe them this style, there were essentially 2 types of provinces: Tributary and Strategic. Strategic provinces were essentially subordinate customer states which provided tribute or assistance to the Aztec state under "common consent." Tributary provinces, on the other hand, provided regular tribute to the empire; obligations on the part of Tributary provinces were mandatory rather than consensual.^{[72] [73]}

Organization of the Aztec Empire [72] [73]
The Triple Brotherhood	Provinces
Tenōchtitlān, modern Mexico City Texcoco, modern Texcoco municipality Tlacopan, also modern Mexico Metropolis Nahuatl glyphic for Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, and Tlacopan.	Tributary Provinces	Strategic Provinces
	Atotonilco de Pedraza Atotonilco el Grande Axocopan Cihuatlan Coixtlahuaca Cotaxtla Cuahuacan Cuauhnāhuac, modern Cuernavaca Cuilapan Huatusco Huaxtepec, or Oaxtepec Malinalco Mictlān Ocuilan Oxitipan Quiauhteopan Soconusco Tepeaca Tepecoacuilco Tlachco, or Taxco Tlacozauhtitlan Tlapacoyan Tlapan Tlatlauhquitepec Tlaxiaco Tochpan, or Tuxpan Tōchtepēc, or Tuxtepec Tollocan, modern Toluca Tzicoac Xilotepec Xocotilan Yoaltepec, or Yautepec	Acatlan Ahautlan Ayotlan Chiapan Chiauhtlan Cuauhchinanco Huexotla Ixtepexi Ixtlahuaca Miahuatlan Misantla Ocuituco Tecomaixtlahuacan Tecpantepec Temazcaltepec Teozacoalco Teozapotlán Tetela del Río Tetela Xalapa Cēmpoalātl, or Zempoala Zompaynco

List of rulers

Tenochtitlan		Texcoco	Tlacopan
Huetlatoani Ācamāpichtli, r. 1367–1387 Huitzilihuitl, r. 1391–1415 Chīmalpopōca, r. 1415–1426 Itzcōhuātl, r. 1427–1440 Motēuczōma Ilhuicamīna, r. 1440–1468 Axayacatl, r. 1469–1481 Tizocic, r. 1481–1486 Āhuizotl, r. 1486–1502 Motēuczōma Xocoyotzin, r. 1502–1520 Cuitlāhuac, r. 1520 Cuāuhtemōc, r. 1521–1524	Cihuacoatl Tlacaelel, r. c. 1426–1487 Tlilpotonqui, r. 1487–1503 Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl, r. 1503–1520 Matlatzincatzin, r. 1520 Tlacontzin, r. 1521–1524 Tlacontzin was baptised don Juan Velásquez and made ruler under Cortés, r. 1524–1526	Huetlatoani Quinatzin Tlaltecatzin, r. ? Techotlalatzin, r. 1357 or 1377–1409 Ixtlilxochitl Ome Tochtli, r. 1409–1418 Nezahualcoyōtl, r. 1431–1472 Nezahualpilli, r. 1473–1515 Cacamatzin, r. 1516–1520 Coanacoch, r. 1521–1524 Tecocoltzin, r. 1524–1525	Huetlatoani Aculnahuacatl Tzaqualcatl, r. c. 1400–1430 Totoquihuaztli I, r. c. 1430–1469 Chimalopopoca, r. 1469–1489 Totoquihuaztli 2, r. 1489–1519 Tetlepanquetzaltzin, r. 1519–1524

^{[74] [75] [76]}

Mythological nature rulers

These are Aztec gods and goddesses, who were also part of the Thirteen Heavens, as well as the Aztec Empire.

Gods

• Centeotl, god of maize associated with the Tianquiztli (goddesses of the Pleiades). Centeotl's name is also spelt as Cinteotl and was like a goddess.
• Chalchiuhtotolin, the god of cleanse and contamination, absolve man of guilt, and overcoming god of fate.
• Xochipilli, god of flowers, pleasure, feasting, frivolity and creative creativity.
• Huehuecoyotl, god of former-age, origin, and deception. He is also the patron of wisdom, followed by his tricks and foolings. His proper name is like to the god of happiness, Ueuecoyotl.
• Huitzilopochtli, god of volition and the state of war, patron god of force, ruler of the South.
• Itztlacoliuhqui-Ixquimilli, god of frost, water ice, cold, winter, sin, punishment and human misery. He is also the god of blindfolded justice.
• Ometecuhtli, god of duality and substance.
• Itztli, god of stone who is a variant of Tezcatlipoca.
• Mictlantecuhtli, god of the Underworld (Mictlan). He is extremely skeleton with bonus horror $.25; especially his exposed liver which dangles cheekily from his chest crenel.
• Patecatl, god of healing and patron god of doctors and peyote. He is the Centzontotochtin's begetter.
• Piltzintecuhtli, god of the visions and the sun. In Aztec mythology Piltzintecuhtli is associated with Mercury and also healing.
• Quetzalcoatl, god of life, the light and wisdom, lord of the winds and the day, ruler of the West.
• Tecciztecatl, god of the moon. Tecciztecatl is Tlaloc and Chalchiuhtlicue's son.
• Tepeyollotl, god of the animals, darkened caves, echoes and earthquakes. Tepeyollotl is a variant of Tezcatlipoca and is associated with mountains.
• Tezcatlipoca, god of providence, the darkness and the invisible, lord of the night, ruler of the Northward. Tezcatlipoca had overthrew Quetzalcoatl, who overthrew him in return.
• Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, god of dawn (Venus) and aspect of Quetzalcoatl.
• Tlaloc, god of rain, lightning and thunder. He is associated with fertility and agriculture.
• Tonacatecuhtli, god of sustenance associated with Ometecuhtli.
• Tonatiuh, god of the sun.
• Xipe Totec, god of rejuvenation, vegetation and spring, lord of the seasons, ruler of the East.
• Xiuhtecuhtli, god of fire and time.
• Ehecatl, god of wind.
• Tzontemoc, god who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld.
• Xolotl, god of death, associated with Venus equally the Evening Star. He is the twin god, and a double of Quetzalcoatl.
• Mixcoatl, aztec god of angling and hunting and old god of hurricanes and storms who is associated with the Milky Style.
• Nanahuatzin, god sun. Nanahuatzin sacrificed himself in a burning fire so that the dominicus should continue to shine all over the world, so the god Tonatiuh took his place.
• Atlahua, god of water and protector of archers and fishermen. The Aztecs prayed to him when there were deaths in water.
• Opochtli, god of fishing and birdcatchers. Patently, he is the discoverer of the harpoon and net.
• Painal, Huitzilopochtli's messenger.
• Techlotl, god who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld. This deity was associated with owls.
• Ometochtli, god of pulque and leader of the Centzontotochtin.

Goddesses

Coyolxauhqui killed after she tried impale her female parent disc, sacrifice paving in the courtyard on the south side, Huēyi Teōcalli ruins.

• Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of running water, lakes, rivers, oceans, streams, horizontal waters, storms and baptism.
• Chantico, goddess of fire, homes and volcanoes.
• Cihuacoatl, goddess of childbirth and picker of souls.
• Citlalicue, goddess of female stars in the Milky way.
• Itzpapalotl, goddess of death. She was the leader of the Tzitzimitl. Stone knives pop out from her eyes.
• Mayahuel, goddess of agave and maguey. She was the Centzontotochtin'south mother.
• Mictecacihuatl, goddess of the Underworld (Mictlan).
• Tlaltecuhtli, sometime goddess of earth (changed in the Earth'due south landscape and atmosphere).
• Tlazolteotl, goddess of lust, passions, carnality, and sexual misdeeds.
• Xochiquetzal, goddess of flowers, love, pleasure and beauty. She Serves as a protector of immature mothers, and is ever young and pretty.
• Atlatoman, patron goddess of those who are born with physical deformities or those unfortunate Mexica who accept suffered from open sores. Some codexes accept also idea this deity as the cause of these ailments.
• Huixtocihuatl, goddess of salt and patron of cultivated foods (including people in the salt trade).
• Chalmecacihuatl, goddess who resided in one of the nine layers of the Underworld. She was Tzontemoc's wife.
• Chicomecoatl, goddess of agriculture.
• Coyolxauhqui, goddess or leader of the Centzonhuitznahua, associated with the moon.

Mythological nature groups

• Cihuateteo, (Cihuacoatl) the malevolent spirits of women who died in childbirth. Their name comes from the goddess Cihuacoatl. Their name is also spelt as "Ciuateteo". (Goddesses)
• Ahuiateteo, gods of excess and pleasance, the gods who are known equally Macuilcozcacuauhtli, Macuilcuetzpalin, Macuilmalinalli, Macuiltochtli, and Macuilxochitl. (Gods)
• Ixcuiname, goddesses of the libidinousness. (Goddesses)
• Cinteteo, gods of the maizes. (Gods)
• Centzontotochtin, (Ometochtli) gods of pulque. (Gods)
• Xiuhtotontli, the gods of burn down (alternative manifestations or states of Xiuhtecuhtli). (Gods)
• Ehecatotontli, (Ehecatl) breath-holding gods of the breezes — who are simply like Ehecatl. (Gods)
• Civateteo, (Cihuacoatl) goddesses who are vampires. Civateteo are like to Cihuateteo, who are not as bad as Civateteo are. Civateteo mostly live in regular United mexican states, and Civateteo come from somewhere vampire-esque. (Goddesses)
• Tzitzimitl, (Itzpapalotl) goddesses of the stars. Tzitzimitl mostly live in regular Mexico, and Tzitzimitl come from Tamoanchan. (Goddesses)
• Centzonmimixcoa, (Cuahuitlicac) 400 gods of the northern stars and "The 400 Northerners." (gods)
• Centzonhuitznahua, (Coyolxauhqui) 400 gods of the southern stars. (Gods)
• Tlaloque, gods of rain, weather condition and mountains. Tlaloc had likewise been considered the ruler of this motley grouping. (Gods)
• Tianquizli, (Citlalicue) these are goddesses of the Pleiades. (Goddesses)
• Ometeotl, gods of the duality. (Gods)
• Tezcatlipocas, creator god's. (Gods)
• Tonalleque, embodied spirits who died during the Boxing (Gods)

Sacred places

• Tamoanchan, a place where Itzpapalotl usually rules over. The gods created the first of the nowadays human being race out of sacrificed blood and ground human bones. Tamoanchan may hateful "We go down to our home."
• Mictlan, the identify where Mictlantecuhtli and Mictecacihuatl dominion over in aztec mythology. This is literally the Underworld.

Police

Ruler Nezahualcoyotl developed the nigh developed code of constabulary in the metropolis-state of Texcoco under him. It was a formal written lawmaking, not merely a collection of customary practices. The sources for knowing about the legal lawmaking are colonial-era writings by Franciscan Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada, and Texcocan historians Juan Bautista Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. The law lawmaking in Texcoco under Nezahualcoyotl was legalistic, as many tried cases by detail types of show and many disregarded the social condition of the litigants, and consisted of 80 written laws. These laws called for severe, publicly administered punishments, creating a legal framework of social control.^[77]

Much less is known virtually the legal system in Tenochtitlan, which might be less legalistic or sophisticated equally those of Texcoco for this period.^[78] Those under the reign of Moctezuma I established it. These laws served to establish and govern relations between the land, classes, and individuals. Land regime meted out punishments solely. The Nahuas enshrined Nahua mores in these laws, criminalizing public acts of homosexuality, drunkenness, and nudity, not to mention more universal proscriptions against theft, murder, and property impairment. As stated before, pochteca could serve as judges, frequently exercising judicial oversight of their own members. As well, military machine courts dealt with both cases inside the military and without during wartime. In that location was an appeal process, with appellate courts standing between local, typically marketplace-place courts, on the provincial level and a supreme court and two special college appellate courts at Tenochtitlan. 1 of those ii special courts dealt with cases arising within Tenochtitlan, the other with cases originating from outside the capital. The ultimate judicial authority laid in easily of the Huey tlatoani, who had the right to appoint lesser judges.^[79]

Run into also

• Aztec
• Aztec mythology
• Aztec philosophy
• Aztec religion
• Aztec society
• Crónica Mexicayotl
• Blossom war
• List of Aztec gods and supernatural beings
• List of rulers of Texcoco
• List of Tenochtitlan rulers
• Listing of Tlatelolco rulers
• Mesoamerica
• Nahuas

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "El tributo a la Triple Alianza". Arqueología Mexicana. 14 Feb 2017.
2. ^ Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Wrinkle Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 497. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
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9. ^ For the purpose of this article, "Aztec" refers only to cities that constituted or were bailiwick to the alliance. For the broader use of the term, see the Aztec civilization article.
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15. ^ Alvarado Tezozomoc 1975 pp. 49–51
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26. ^ The term cihuācōātl literally means "woman-snake" or "female snake" and the origin of this designation is not well understood. The position was certainly not reserved for women, although the title may perhaps suggest a metaphoric dichotomy between the "masculine" Tlahtoāni dealing with external regal affairs and the "feminine" Cihuācōātl managing domestic affairs.
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49. ^ ^{a b c} Smith 2009 p. 275
50. ^ The Early History of Greater Mexico, chapter 3 "Conquest and Colonization", Ida Altman, S.L. (Sarah) Cline, and Javier Pescador. Pearson, 2003.
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61. ^ Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. (1983). Aztec Land Making: Ecology, Construction, and the Origin of the Land. American Anthropologist, New Series (85)2, p. 273
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71. ^ Brumfiel, Elizabeth Thousand. (2001). Religion and land in the Aztec Empire, in Empires (Alcock et al, Eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p. 284
72. ^ ^{a b} Evans, pp. 470–471
73. ^ ^{a b} Smith, Michael E. (1996). The Strategic Provinces, in Aztec Imperial Strategies. Dumbarton Oaks: Washington, D.C., pp. ane–2
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Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aztec.

Main sources

• Berdan, Frances F.; Anawalt, Patricia Rieff (1997). The Essential Codex Mendoza. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-20454-6.

• Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico (1576), Cambridge, MA, Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81319-X.
• Durán, Diego, History of the Indies of New Kingdom of spain (c. 1581), University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
• Alvarado Tezozomoc, Hernando, Crónica Mexicana (c. 1598), Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, 1978.

Secondary sources

• Calnek, Edward (1978). R. P. Schaedel; J. Eastward. Hardoy; N. S. Kinzer (eds.). Urbanization of the Americas from its Beginnings to the Nowadays . pp. 463–470.
• Davies, Nigel (1973). The Aztecs: A History. University of Oklahoma Press.
• Evans, Susan T. (2008). Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archeology and Civilisation History, 2nd edition. Thames & Hudson, New York. ISBN978-0-500-28714-9.
• Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Majestic Expansion and Political Control. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-2121-1.
• Leon-Portilla, Miguel (1963). Aztec Thought and Culture: A Report of the Ancient Náhuatl Mind. University of Oklahoma Press.
• Pollard, H. P. (1993). Tariacuri's Legacy. University of Oklahoma Press.
• Smith, Michael (1984). "The Aztec Migrations of Nahuatl Chronicles: Myth or History?". Ethnohistory. 31 (three): 153–168. doi:10.2307/482619. JSTOR 482619.
• Smith, Michael (2009). The Aztecs, second Edition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-0-631-23015-1.
• Smith, Chiliad. Eastward. (2001). "The Archaeological Written report of Empires and Imperialism in Pre-Hispanic Primal United mexican states". Periodical of Anthropological Archeology. xx (iii): 245–284. doi:10.1006/jaar.2000.0372.
• Soustelle, Jacques, The Daily Life of the Aztecs. Paris, 1955; English language edition, 1964.

External links

• https://www.azteccalendar.com/god/
• https://world wide web.godchecker.com/aztec-mythology/

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_Empire

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